Question
Search through the ABA literature and locate a study that uses a reversal or withdrawal design during some aspect of the experiment. Summarize the study and evaluate the internal validity of the study.

Suggested readings:
The Effects of Token Economy Employing Instructional Consequences for a Third-Grade Student with Learning Disabilities: A Data-Based Study, by James William Higgins, Randy Lee Williams and T. F. McLaughlin
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The aim of the study done by Higgins et al. (2001) was to determine if a token reinforcement program could decrease three inappropriate behaviors of an elementary school third-grade student with learning disabilities. The three targeted behaviors were being out of seat, talking out and poor posture). Another goal was to determine if a token system using academic consequences could be implemented in a setting of integrated classroom, due to the growing emphasis on teaching children with mild learning disabilities in such a setting (Higgins et al., 2001).

Previous studies had shown that implementing classroom token economy is one of the most effective and data-based ways to improve classroom behavior.
In the present study, evaluation of effects of contingently presenting a student with tokens which were later exchanged for math work sheets was performed. Contingent tokens were earned when target behaviors were absent. Inappropriate, i.e. target behaviors were defined as: (a) being out of the seat without teacher’s permission or aide; (b) talking out loud in the classroom without being called upon the teacher or teacher’s aide unless a group response was requested; (c) exhibiting poor seat posture including legs splayed out, tucked underneath body or a chair, or bent backwards; slouching, arms and hands anywhere but on the desk, and any kind of lying on the desk (Higgins et al., 2001).
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      • eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\SubjectCat (60μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\KeyWritten (293μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (1.08ms)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (403μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (238μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (194μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (206μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (182μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (302μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (208μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (167μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (236μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (187μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (184μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (297μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (185μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (251μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (684μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (197μs)
      • creating: site.layouts.app (1.04ms)
      • composing: site.layouts.app (24μs)
      • creating: components.canonical (614μs)
      • composing: components.canonical (104μs)
      • creating: components.open-graph (212μs)
      • composing: components.open-graph (76μs)
      • creating: site.headers.header (315μs)
      • composing: site.headers.header (78μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (5.1ms)
      • creating: components.footer (274μs)
      • composing: components.footer (1.3ms)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (1.59ms)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheMissed (4.02ms)
      • Illuminate\Database\Events\StatementPrepared (962μs)
      • Illuminate\Database\Events\QueryExecuted (1.29ms)
      • eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\SubjectCat (60μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\KeyWritten (439μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (363μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (162μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (123μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (115μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (114μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (194μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (5.02ms)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (326μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (343μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (217μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (205μs)
      • Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (362μs)
      • creating: components.forms.contact-us (336μs)
      • composing: components.forms.contact-us (184μs)
      • creating: components.forms.get-started (223μs)
      • composing: components.forms.get-started (95μs)
      • creating: components.forms.free-tool-download (148μs)
      • composing: components.forms.free-tool-download (80μs)
      • creating: components.forms.claim-free-worksheet (144μs)
      • composing: components.forms.claim-free-worksheet (79μs)
      • creating: components.forms.tutor-subscription-waitlist (140μs)
      • composing: components.forms.tutor-subscription-waitlist (79μs)
      • creating: components.forms.tutor-subscription-join (141μs)
      • composing: components.forms.tutor-subscription-join (77μs)
      • creating: components.forms.tutor-support (137μs)
      • composing: components.forms.tutor-support (83μs)
      • 311 x Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheHit (20.33%)
        126ms
        20 x Illuminate\Database\Events\StatementPrepared (5.03%)
        31.13ms
        20 x Illuminate\Database\Events\QueryExecuted (4.47%)
        27.65ms
        11 x Illuminate\Cache\Events\CacheMissed (2.2%)
        13.65ms
        1 x Illuminate\Foundation\Events\LocaleUpdated (1.14%)
        7.04ms
        11 x Illuminate\Cache\Events\KeyWritten (0.97%)
        5.98ms
        1 x Illuminate\Database\Events\ConnectionEstablished (0.29%)
        1.80ms
        1 x Illuminate\Routing\Events\Routing (0.27%)
        1.70ms
        1 x composing: components.footer (0.21%)
        1.30ms
        1 x creating: components.breadcrumbs (0.18%)
        1.11ms
        1 x creating: site.layouts.app (0.17%)
        1.04ms
        12 x eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\SubjectCat (0.15%)
        942μs
        1 x composing: homework.show (0.11%)
        677μs
        1 x creating: components.canonical (0.1%)
        614μs
        1 x creating: homework.show (0.09%)
        567μs
        1 x Illuminate\Routing\Events\RouteMatched (0.09%)
        545μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.contact-us (0.05%)
        336μs
        1 x eloquent.booted: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibrary (0.05%)
        334μs
        7 x eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibrary (0.05%)
        318μs
        1 x creating: site.headers.header (0.05%)
        315μs
        1 x creating: components.footer (0.04%)
        274μs
        1 x eloquent.booting: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibraryFile (0.04%)
        245μs
        1 x eloquent.booting: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibrary (0.04%)
        244μs
        1 x eloquent.booting: App\Models\SubjectCat (0.04%)
        230μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.get-started (0.04%)
        223μs
        2 x eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\Subject (0.04%)
        222μs
        1 x creating: components.open-graph (0.03%)
        212μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.contact-us (0.03%)
        184μs
        1 x composing: components.breadcrumbs (0.03%)
        176μs
        4 x eloquent.retrieved: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibraryFile (0.03%)
        165μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.free-tool-download (0.02%)
        148μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.claim-free-worksheet (0.02%)
        144μs
        1 x eloquent.booting: App\Models\Subject (0.02%)
        141μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.tutor-subscription-join (0.02%)
        141μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.tutor-subscription-waitlist (0.02%)
        140μs
        1 x creating: components.forms.tutor-support (0.02%)
        137μs
        1 x composing: components.canonical (0.02%)
        104μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.get-started (0.02%)
        95μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.tutor-support (0.01%)
        83μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.free-tool-download (0.01%)
        80μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.claim-free-worksheet (0.01%)
        79μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.tutor-subscription-waitlist (0.01%)
        79μs
        1 x composing: site.headers.header (0.01%)
        78μs
        1 x composing: components.forms.tutor-subscription-join (0.01%)
        77μs
        1 x composing: components.open-graph (0.01%)
        76μs
        1 x eloquent.booted: App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibraryFile (0.01%)
        63μs
        1 x eloquent.booted: App\Models\Subject (0.01%)
        62μs
        1 x eloquent.booted: App\Models\SubjectCat (0.01%)
        52μs
        1 x composing: site.layouts.app (0%)
        24μs
      14 templates were rendered
      • 1x homework.showshow.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.breadcrumbsbreadcrumbs.blade.phpblade
      • 1x site.layouts.appapp.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.canonicalcanonical.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.open-graphopen-graph.blade.phpblade
      • 1x site.headers.headerheader.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.footerfooter.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.contact-uscontact-us.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.get-startedget-started.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.free-tool-downloadfree-tool-download.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.claim-free-worksheetclaim-free-worksheet.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.tutor-subscription-waitlisttutor-subscription-waitlist.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.tutor-subscription-jointutor-subscription-join.blade.phpblade
      • 1x components.forms.tutor-supporttutor-support.blade.phpblade
      uri
      GET college-homework-library/{category}/{subject}/{id}
      middleware
      web, utm.parameters
      controller
      App\Http\Controllers\HomeworkLibraryController@show
      namespace
      where
      as
      homework.show
      file
      app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:79-176
      20 statements were executed, 4 of which were duplicates, 16 unique. Show only duplicated39.15ms
      • Connection Establishedtwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryController.php#91
        Backtrace
        • 13. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:91
        • 14. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
        • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
        • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
        • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:205
      • select * from `solutionslibrary` where `status` = 'published' and `price` > 0 and `solutionslibrary`.`id` = '25573' limit 1
        11.84mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryController.php#97
        Bindings
        • 0: published
        • 1: 0
        • 2: 25573
        Backtrace
        • 16. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:97
        • 17. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
        • 18. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:205
      • select * from `subjects` where `subjects`.`id` in (328)
        970μstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryController.php#97
        Backtrace
        • 21. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:97
        • 22. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
        • 23. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
        • 24. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
        • 25. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:205
      • select * from `solutionslibrary_files` where `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` in (25573)
        3.49mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryController.php#97
        Backtrace
        • 21. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:97
        • 22. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
        • 23. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
        • 24. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
        • 25. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:205
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 12 limit 1
        1.12mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibrary.php#201
        Bindings
        • 0: 12
        Backtrace
        • 20. app/Models/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibrary.php:201
        • 26. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:105
        • 27. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Controller.php:54
        • 28. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/ControllerDispatcher.php:43
        • 29. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Routing/Route.php:260
      • select * from `solutionslibrary` where `id` <> 25573 and `subject` = 328 and `status` = 'published' and `price` > 0 order by RAND() limit 6
        3.5mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryRepository.php#30
        Bindings
        • 0: 25573
        • 1: 328
        • 2: published
        • 3: 0
        Backtrace
        • 14. app/Repositories/HomeworkLibraryRepository.php:30
        • 15. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 16. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 18. app/Repositories/HomeworkLibraryRepository.php:39
        • 19. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:139
      • select * from `subjects` where `subjects`.`id` in (328)
        1.05mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibraryRepository.php#30
        Backtrace
        • 19. app/Repositories/HomeworkLibraryRepository.php:30
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 21. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 23. app/Repositories/HomeworkLibraryRepository.php:39
        • 24. app/Http/Controllers/HomeworkLibraryController.php:139
      • select * from `solutionslibrary_files` where `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` = 25573 and `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` is not null and `publish` = 'question' order by `order` asc, `id` asc
        1.15mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibrary.php#260
        Bindings
        • 0: 25573
        • 1: question
        Backtrace
        • 15. app/Models/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibrary.php:260
        • 16. app/Transformers/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibraryTransformer.php:58
        • 19. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:128
        • 20. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:107
        • 21. vendor/league/fractal/src/Scope.php:383
      • select * from `solutionslibrary_files` where `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` = 25573 and `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` is not null and `publish` = 'teaser' order by `order` asc, `id` asc
        1.24mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibrary.php#260
        Bindings
        • 0: 25573
        • 1: teaser
        Backtrace
        • 15. app/Models/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibrary.php:260
        • 16. app/Transformers/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibraryTransformer.php:69
        • 19. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:128
        • 20. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:107
        • 21. vendor/league/fractal/src/Scope.php:383
      • select * from `solutionslibrary_files` where `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` = 25573 and `solutionslibrary_files`.`solutionlib_id` is not null and `publish` = 'solution' order by `order` asc, `id` asc
        1.75mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibrary.php#260
        Bindings
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        Backtrace
        • 15. app/Models/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibrary.php:260
        • 16. app/Transformers/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibraryTransformer.php:80
        • 19. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:128
        • 20. vendor/league/fractal/src/TransformerAbstract.php:107
        • 21. vendor/league/fractal/src/Scope.php:383
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 12 limit 1
        1.32mstwenty4_siteHomeworkLibrary.php#201
        Bindings
        • 0: 12
        Backtrace
        • 20. app/Models/HomeworkLibrary/HomeworkLibrary.php:201
        • 32. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
        • 33. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/PhpEngine.php:58
        • 34. vendor/livewire/livewire/src/ComponentConcerns/RendersLivewireComponents.php:69
        • 35. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/View/Engines/CompilerEngine.php:70
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 1 limit 1
        1.09mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
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        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 3 limit 1
        1.04mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 3
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 4 limit 1
        1.1mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 4
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 10 limit 1
        1.06mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 10
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 33 limit 1
        1.21mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 33
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 11 limit 1
        1.24mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 11
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 5 limit 1
        1.12mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
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        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 34 limit 1
        1.23mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 34
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 31 limit 1
        1.17mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 31
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 34. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Filesystem/Filesystem.php:110
      • select * from `subject_cats` where `subject_cats`.`id` = 36 limit 1
        1.46mstwenty4_siteSubject.php#100
        Bindings
        • 0: 36
        Backtrace
        • 18. app/Models/Subject.php:100
        • 19. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/Repository.php:397
        • 20. vendor/laravel/framework/src/Illuminate/Cache/CacheManager.php:419
        • 22. app/Models/Subject.php:101
        • 28. view::components.footer:170
      App\Models\SubjectCat
      12SubjectCat.php
      App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibrary
      7HomeworkLibrary.php
      App\Models\HomeworkLibrary\HomeworkLibraryFile
      4HomeworkLibraryFile.php
      App\Models\Subject
      2Subject.php
          _token
          u0SNm5ziD7AbEjlLXs4vgkZOeFI98VIb7vbTOW8P
          utm_source
          direct
          redirectUrl
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          array:1 [ "url" => "https://staging.dev.24houranswers.com/college-homework-library/Psychology/Rese...
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          status_code
          200
          
          status_text
          OK
          format
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          content_type
          text/html; charset=UTF-8
          request_query
          []
          
          request_request
          []
          
          request_headers
          0 of 0
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          request_cookies
          []
          
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